Access to health services for chronic disease care during the COVID-19 pandemic in Ecuador: A qualitative analysis using a Social Determinants of Health approach.

This qualitative study aims to explore how the COVID-19 pandemic impacted healthcare access for patients with chronic conditions in Ecuador from the patient's perspective. We interviewed 19 patients diagnosed with arterial hypertension or type 2 diabetes in rural and urban areas of Ecuador during August and September 2020. We used the Framework Method to analyse the interview transcripts with ATLAS.Ti 8.4 and organised the ideas discussed using categories from the World Health Organization Commission on the Social Determinants of Health conceptual framework. Reorganization of health services during the pandemic meant that patients with arterial hypertension or diabetes could no longer attend face-to-face appointments for disease follow-up. System failures related to medication supply led to increased out-of-pocket payments, which, together with reduced or absent earnings, and in a context with limited social protection policies, meant that patients frequently went for prolonged periods without medication. Rural health initiatives, support from family and use of traditional medicine were reported as ways to manage their chronic condition during this time. Barriers to disease management disproportionately affected individuals with low socioeconomic positions. Stock shortages, lack of protective labour policies and limited reach of anticipatory policies for health emergencies likely worsened pre-existing health inequities in Ecuador.

Incidencia de desnutrición crónica y factores asociados en una cohorte de niños menores de 5 años / Incidence of chronic malnutrition and associated factors in a cohort of children under 5 years of age: A multicenter observational study

Introducción: La desnutrición crónica es un problema de difícil erradicación con grandes repercusiones en la población infantil. En el Ecuador 1 de cada 5 niños menor de cinco años, presenta desnutrición crónica. El objetivo del presente estudio fue determinar incidencia y factores asociados al desarrollo de desnutrición crónica en una cohorte de niños menores de 5 años durante un periodo de seguimiento de un año, en la provincia de Chimborazo, 2018-2019. Métodos: Se realizó un estudio de cohorte prospectivo, con seguimiento de 2018-2019. La población estuvo conformada por 1228 niños, de los cuales se tomó una muestra de 138 niños. Se tuvieron en cuenta variables como la edad, sexo, ubicación geográfica, nivel socioeconómico, acceso a servicios de salud, servicios básicos y tierras, prácticas de alimentación, antropometría, desnutrición crónica, talla de la madre, infecciones, y parasitosis. Se calculó el Riesgo Relativo (RR) y sus respectivos intervalos de confianza al 95% usando modelos lineales generalizados (familia binomial). Resultados: La incidencia de desnutrición crónica fue de 20,3%. Los factores asociados fueron: dificultad para acceder a los servicios de salud [RR: 4.87; IC 95%: 1.89-12.55]; y LME < 6 meses [RR: 3.44, IC 95%: 2.14-5.55]. Conclusiones: La incidencia de desnutrición crónica en menores de cinco años en la provincia Chimborazo es elevada; por lo que se precisa de intervenciones que garanticen el acceso a los servicios de salud y educación nutricional para eliminar este problema de salud.

Introduction: Chronic malnutrition is a problem that is difficult to eradicate with significant repercussions on the child population. In Ecuador, 1 in 5 children under five have chronic malnutrition. This trial aimed to determine the incidence and factors associated with the development of chronic malnutrition in a cohort of children under five years of age during a one-year follow-up period in the province of Chimborazo, 2018-2019. Methods: A prospective cohort study was conducted with a 2018-2019 follow-up. The population consisted of 1,228 children, from which a sample of 138 children was taken. Variables such as age, gender, geographic location, socioeconomic level, access to health services, essential services and land, feeding practices, anthropometry, chronic malnutrition, mother's height, infections, and parasitosis were taken into account. The Relative Risk (RR) and their respective 95% confidence intervals were calculated using generalized linear models (binomial family). Results: The incidence of chronic malnutrition was 20.3%. The associated factors were: difficulty in accessing health services [RR: 4.87; 95% CI: 1.89-12.55]; and EBF <6 months [RR: 3.44, 95% CI: 2.14-5.55]. Conclusions: The incidence of chronic malnutrition in children under five years of age in the Chimborazo province is high; therefore, interventions are needed to guarantee access to health services and nutritional education to eliminate this health problem.

A multidimensional model of healthy ageing: proposal and evaluation of determinants based on a population survey in Ecuador.

BACKGROUND: Healthy ageing is a complex construct which involves multiple dimensions. Previous studies of healthy ageing have focused only on measuring the intrinsic capacity of the older person. The objectives of this study were to design a multidimensional model of healthy ageing and to identify its determinants from national data in Ecuador. METHODS: A cross-sectional analytical study was carried out from the National Survey of Health and Well-being of the Older Adult, 2010. Sample was 1797 adults aged 65 years or more. A multidimensional model was designed based on the World Health Organization's concept of healthy ageing. For the analysis, two groups were created: a healthy ageing and a less healthy ageing group. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regressions were performed to analyze the probability of belonging to the healthy group according to sex, age, area of ​​residence, level of education, perceived health status, perceived life satisfaction, and poverty by income level. RESULTS: The 53.15% of the sample was classified in the healthy ageing group. Women and the poorest older adults were less likely to be in the healthy ageing group (OR 0.58; 95% CI 0.464-0.737; OR 0.44; 95% CI 0.343-0.564). Older adults with secondary education or higher, who considered their health as excellent and who were satisfied with their life, had a greater probability of being in healthy ageing group (OR 2.61; 95% CI 1.586-4.309; OR 28.49; 95% CI 3.623-224.02; OR 0.23; 95% CI 0.165-0.341). CONCLUSIONS: This study contributes with a multidimensional approach to healthy ageing. It proposes to evaluate the intrinsic capacity of the individual, the social and political environment and the interaction with it, through indicators that discriminate who are ageing in a healthy way and who are not. By using this model, it was identified that gender and economic situation seem to play an important role on heathy ageing of the Ecuadorian population. Public policies are necessary to promote healthy ageing, especially focused on improving socioeconomic conditions and gender equity.

Contextualizing Evidence for Action on Diabetes in Low-Resource Settings-Project CEAD Part I: A Mixed-Methods Study Protocol.

Challenges remain for policy adoption and implementation to tackle the unprecedented and relentless increase in obesity, diabetes and other non-communicable diseases (NCDs), especially in low- and middle-income countries. The aim of this mixed-methods study is to analyse the contextual relevance and applicability to low-resource settings of a sample of evidence-based healthy public policies, using local knowledge, perceptions and pertinent epidemiological data. Firstly, we will identify and prioritise policies that have the potential to reduce the burden of diabetes in low-resource settings with a scoping review and modified Delphi method. In parallel, we will undertake two cross-sectional population surveys on diabetes risk and morbidity in two low-resource settings in Ecuador. Patients, community members, health workers and policy makers will analyse the contextual relevance and applicability of the policy actions and discuss their potential for the reduction in inequities in diabetes risk and morbidity in their population. This study tackles one of the greatest challenges in global health today: how to drive the implementation of population-wide preventative measures to fight NCDs in low resource settings. The findings will demonstrate how local knowledge, perceptions and pertinent epidemiological data can be used to analyse the contextual relevance and applicability of potential policy actions.

Socioeconomic inequalities and measles immunization coverage in Ecuador: A spatial analysis.

INTRODUCTION/BACKGROUND: Inequalities in measles immunization coverage facilitate the onset of outbreaks. This study aimed to quantify socioeconomic inequalities associated with measles immunization coverage at the population level. METHODS: An ecological study was performed using two datasets: the results of a measles immunization survey performed in Ecuador, in 2011, and socioeconomic data from the 2010 census, aggregated by canton. The survey included 3,140,799 people aged 6 months to 14 years living in 220 cantons of Ecuador. Vaccinated children were considered those who received at least one dose of vaccine against measles. Multiple spatial regression was performed to identify socioeconomic inequalities associated with measles immunization coverage. The slope index of inequality and the relative index of inequality were calculated. RESULTS: Vaccination coverage against measles was inversely associated with unsatisfied basic needs in urban areas (P < 0.01) and the proportions of indigenous and African-Ecuadorian residents in the canton (P = 0.015), and directly associated with unemployment rate in the canton (P = 0.037). The distribution of immunization coverage across the cantons was heterogeneous, indicating spatial dependence. The non-immunization rate was 71% higher in the poorer cantons than in the upper stratum cantons (prevalence ratio 1.71; 95%CI: 1.69-1.72). A difference of 10.6 percentage points was detected in immunization coverage between cantons with the best vs. worst socioeconomic level, according to the slope index of inequality. The relative index of inequality revealed that immunization coverage was 1.12 times higher in cantons with the highest socioeconomic level vs. cantons with the lowest socioeconomic level. CONCLUSIONS: The spatial dependence between measles vaccination coverage and socioeconomic disparities suggests clusters of vulnerable populations for outbreaks. Health and social inequalities must be considered to achieve and maintain measles elimination.

Tabaco en adolescentes escolares brasileños: asociación con salud mental y contexto familiar / Tobacco use in Brazilian school adolescents: association with mental health and family context

Objetivo: Estudiar la asociación entre aspectos de la salud mental y el contexto familiar con la experimentación y el consumo de tabaco en jóvenes escolares brasileños. Método: Estudio transversal utilizando datos de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud Escolar de Brasil, que incluyó 109.104 escolares del noveno año de formación fundamental, turno diurno, de escuelas públicas y privadas de los 26 Estados y el Distrito Federal. Se realizó un análisis descriptivo de las variables, análisis bivariado y multivariado, con obtención de odds ratio (OR) e intervalo de confianza del 95% (IC95%). Resultados: El 20,9% de los escolares experimentaron el tabaco por lo menos una vez en la vida. Los adolescentes que presentaban sentimientos de soledad más frecuentemente (OR: 2,07; IC95%: 1,98-2,16), dificultad para dormir (OR: 2,37; IC95%: 2,52-2,48) y menor interacción social (OR: 1,27; IC95%: 1,26-1,32) se asociaron más frecuentemente con consumo de tabaco, con independencia del tipo de escuela, el sexo y el color de piel. Los escolares de padres o responsables poco comprensivos (OR: 2,39; IC95%: 2,29-2,49), o que no saben lo que los hijos hacen en su tiempo libre (OR: 1,52; IC95%: 1,46-1,59), se asociaron con consumo frecuente de cigarrillos. Conclusión: Se evidenció una asociación entre la salud mental y el contexto familiar con la experimentación y el uso de tabaco en adolescentes escolarizados brasileños, independientemente del tipo de escuela, sexo y color de piel. Es importante que programas destinados a prevenir y retardar la experimentación y el uso de tabaco en la adolescencia enfaticen en estos hallazgos y se planteen estrategias en ámbitos de salud mental y familiar

Objective: To study the association between aspects of mental health and the family context with tobacco experimentation and consumption among Brazilian schoolchildren. Method: A cross-sectional study using data from the National Survey of Schoolchildren's Health in Brazil conducted on 109,104 schoolchildren from the ninth year of elementary school, day scholars in public and private schools in all Brazilian state capitals and the Federal District. Descriptive analysis of variables, bivariate and multivariate analyses were performed with logistic regression estimates, adjusted for socioeconomic variables, obtaining the odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (95%CI). Results: Among the participants, 52.2% were female. Twenty point nine percent of the students reported having experimented with cigarettes at least once. Adolescents who experienced more often feelings of loneliness (OR: 2.07; 95%CI: 1.98-2.16), difficulty sleeping (OR: 2.37; 95%CI: 2.52-2.48) and lower social interaction (OR: 1.27; 95%CI: 1.26-1.32), were more likely to smoke, regardless of socioeconomic status. The schoolchildren of parents or caregivers (OR: 2.39; 95%CI: 2.29-2.49) who did not know what their children did in their free time (OR: 1.52; 95%CI: 1.46-1.59) were associated with more frequent cigarette smoking. Conclusion: An association was seen between aspects of mental health and the family context with the experimentation and consumption of tobacco in adolescents enrolled in the study in Brazil. These associations are independent of school type, sex and skin colour. It is important that programmes for the prevention of tobacco use in adolescence emphasise these findings

[Tobacco use in Brazilian school adolescents: association with mental health and family context]. / Tabaco en adolescentes escolares brasileños: asociación con salud mental y contexto familiar.

OBJECTIVE: To study the association between aspects of mental health and the family context with tobacco experimentation and consumption among Brazilian schoolchildren. METHOD: A cross-sectional study using data from the National Survey of Schoolchildren's Health in Brazil conducted on 109,104 schoolchildren from the ninth year of elementary school, day scholars in public and private schools in all Brazilian state capitals and the Federal District. Descriptive analysis of variables, bivariate and multivariate analyses were performed with logistic regression estimates, adjusted for socioeconomic variables, obtaining the odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (95%CI). RESULTS: Among the participants, 52.2% were female. Twenty point nine percent of the students reported having experimented with cigarettes at least once. Adolescents who experienced more often feelings of loneliness (OR: 2.07; 95%CI: 1.98-2.16), difficulty sleeping (OR: 2.37; 95%CI: 2.52-2.48) and lower social interaction (OR: 1.27; 95%CI: 1.26-1.32), were more likely to smoke, regardless of socioeconomic status. The schoolchildren of parents or caregivers (OR: 2.39; 95%CI: 2.29-2.49) who did not know what their children did in their free time (OR: 1.52; 95%CI: 1.46-1.59) were associated with more frequent cigarette smoking. CONCLUSION: An association was seen between aspects of mental health and the family context with the experimentation and consumption of tobacco in adolescents enrolled in the study in Brazil. These associations are independent of school type, sex and skin colour. It is important that programmes for the prevention of tobacco use in adolescence emphasise these findings.